Russell Fernald

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Russell D. Fernald is an American neuroscientist/neuroethologist, currently on the Biology faculty at Stanford University. Fernald is known for his interdisciplinary work based on fieldwork and subsequent neuroethological analysis of an African cichlid fish that he has shown to be a useful and novel model organism. His research spans several domains: 1) in the visual system including the discovery of rod photoreceptor stem cells, circadian renewal of photoreceptor opsins and mechanisms of crystalline lens focus (Rank Prize); 2) In social control of reproductive behavior: social regulation of reproduction via gonadotropin releasing hormones through specific brain circuitry; 3) Cognitive skills that have evolved to regulate social status.[1]

Early life[edit]

Russ Fernald was born in Chuquicamata, Chile to American parents, Catherine and Russell G. Fernald where his father was a mining engineer, working at the Anaconda Company open pit mine.[citation needed]

Fernald returned to the U.S. when he was ~3 and grew up in a western suburb of Chicago where he attended public schools. He was attracted to biology by foraging in local swamps and was one of a handful of his high school classmates who went to college.[citation needed]

Career[edit]

Fernald attended Swarthmore College where he received his B.S. in Electrical Engineering in 1963. He then completed his Ph.D. in Biophysics from the University of Pennsylvania in 1968 where he worked with Professor George Gerstein. He was supported by the Ford Foundation and studied the neurobiology of the cat cochlear nucleus using single cell recording and modeling the data. In 1969, he moved to Munich, Germany where he worked as a postdoctoral fellow at the Max-Planck für Psychiatrie in Munich with Dr. O. Creutzfeldt, until 1971. In this position, together with Ronald Chase, he developed a novel technique for aligning and focusing the eyes of experimental animals.[2] In 1971 Fernald moved to the Max-Planck Institute for Behavioral Physiology where he worked with Nobel Laureate, Dr. Konrad Lorenz in Seewiesen, Germany. His research was on quantitative behavioral analyses of bird and fish behavior and he began African field work on cichlid fish during that time.[3][4][5] He then returned to the US where he joined the faculty of the University of Oregon (1976–1990), rising through the ranks to full professor and becoming the director of the Neuroscience Institute. During this time, he was an NIH Fogarty Senior International Fellow at the Medical Research Council in London (1985–86). In 1990, Fernald moved to Stanford where he has since held numerous titles and received several awards, including a Hilgard Visiting Professor, 1987–88; Professor of Psychology, 1990–2004, Professor of Biology, Stanford University 2004-; Benjamin Scott Crocker Professor, Stanford University, 2004-; Javits Investigator Award, NINDS 1999–2006; Bing Prize for Innovation in Undergraduate teaching, 1996–1999; Cox Medal for Fostering Undergraduate Research, 1998; Dinkelspiel Prize for Outstanding Contributions to Undergraduate Education, 2000; Bass University Fellow in Undergraduate Education, 2003–2013.[citation needed]

He was awarded the Rank Prize in Vision/Opto-electronics, 2004; Elected, American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 2011 and presented numerous named lectures including the Futterman Memorial Lecture, University of Washington, 2009; Forbes Lectures, Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, 2011; Marsden Lecture, McGill University, Montreal, 2013; Matarazzo Lecture, Oregon Health Sciences Institute, Portland, 2013. He has served as Executive Editor, Experimental Eye Research, 1991–2000; Editorial Board, Brain, Behavior and Evolution, 1998–2007; Advisory Board, Canadian Institute for Advanced Research, 2008–2015; Advisory Board, Max Planck Institute for Brain Research, Frankfurt, 2011–present; Reviewing Editor, e-Life, 2012–present.[citation needed]

Research[edit]

In early work, Fernald asked how fish maintain excellent visual acuity despite rapid eye growth. He showed eyes grow through expansion and cell addition at the eye's margins but that rod photoreceptors arise from precursor stem cells.[6][7] Fernald next asked how fish lens quality was preserved during growth, identifying specific mechanisms, sharing the Rank Prize for the discovery.[8][9] Fernald also showed that retinal opsin production was regulated via a circadian rhythm, since shown to be the case in all vertebrates.[10] Fernald also did research on eye evolution, showing that photoreceptor proteins have an ancient origin predating vision while lens proteins have arisen many times from different sources in different animal lineages.[11][12]

In his research on the control of reproduction, Fernald's research showed neurons containing gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) changed size in response to an animal's social status[13][14][15] and his group were the first to find the gene encoding (GnRH) in cold-blooded vertebrates.[16][17] He also found a previously unknown second GnRH gene in humans and other primates.[18][19][20][21][22] To be effective, GnRH must be delivered in a pulsatile fashion, yet no known mechanism synchronized the firing of these neurons, but Fernald recently showed this results from their connection via gap junctions.[23]

In his research, Fernald collected definitive evidence that social behavior can change the brain, including regulation of numerous receptors, identifying a social calculus used during behavioral interactions.[24][25][26][27] He identified an attention hierarchy in fish that maintains social systems[28] and more recently that fish can construct a logical linear hierarchy from paired observations to perform transitive inference just as do primates, thereby identifying cognitive skills required for social systems across vertebrates.[29][30] Using the CRISPR technique, his group has shown that a single gene controls reproduction in the cichlid fish.[31][32] He has published several review articles describing the search for the social brain.[33][34][35][36][37] among his 220 papers and book chapters.

References[edit]

  1. ^ Angier, Natalie (1991-11-12). "In Fish, Social Status Goes Right to the Brain". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2023-03-03.
  2. ^ Fernald, R; Chase, R (1971). "An improved method for plotting retinal landmarks and focusing the eyes". Vision Research. 11 (1): 95–6. doi:10.1016/0042-6989(71)90207-0. PMID 5575857.
  3. ^ Fernald, Russell D. (1977). "Quantitative behavioural observations of Haplochromis burtoni under semi-natural conditions". Animal Behaviour. 25: 643–53. doi:10.1016/0003-3472(77)90115-4. S2CID 53203090.
  4. ^ Fernald, Russell D.; Hirata, Nancy R. (1977). "Field study of Haplochromis burtoni: Habitats and co-habitant". Environmental Biology of Fishes. 2 (3): 299–308. doi:10.1007/BF00005997. S2CID 19076616.
  5. ^ Fernald, Russell D.; Hirata, Nancy R. (1977). "Field study of Haplochromis burtoni: Quantitative behavioural observations". Animal Behaviour. 25: 964–75. doi:10.1016/0003-3472(77)90048-3. S2CID 53164983.
  6. ^ Fernald, R. D. (1981). "Chromatic organization of a cichlid fish retina". Vision Research. 21 (12): 1749–53. doi:10.1016/0042-6989(81)90207-8. PMID 7336611. S2CID 8117557.
  7. ^ Johns, Pamela Raymond; Fernald, Russell D. (1981). "Genesis of rods in teleost fish retina". Nature. 293 (5828): 141–2. Bibcode:1981Natur.293..141J. doi:10.1038/293141a0. PMID 7266666. S2CID 4248188.
  8. ^ Fernald, Russell D.; Wright, Stephen E. (1983). "Maintenance of optical quality during crystalline lens growth". Nature. 301 (5901): 618–20. Bibcode:1983Natur.301..618F. doi:10.1038/301618a0. PMID 6828142. S2CID 4344824.
  9. ^ Kröger, R. H.; Campbell, M. C.; Munger, R; Fernald, R. D. (1994). "Refractive index distribution and spherical aberration in the crystalline lens of the African cichlid fish Haplochromis burtoni". Vision Research. 34 (14): 1815–22. doi:10.1016/0042-6989(94)90306-9. PMID 7941384. S2CID 6272668.
  10. ^ Korenbrot, Juan I.; Fernald, Russell D. (1989). "Circadian rhythm and light regulate opsin mRNA in rod photoreceptors". Nature. 337 (6206): 454–7. Bibcode:1989Natur.337..454K. doi:10.1038/337454a0. PMID 2521689. S2CID 1740859.
  11. ^ Land, M F; Fernald, R D (1992). "The Evolution of Eyes". Annual Review of Neuroscience. 15: 1–29. doi:10.1146/annurev.ne.15.030192.000245. PMID 1575438.
  12. ^ Fernald, R. D. (2006). "Casting a Genetic Light on the Evolution of Eyes". Science. 313 (5795): 1914–8. Bibcode:2006Sci...313.1914F. doi:10.1126/science.1127889. PMID 17008522. S2CID 84439732.
  13. ^ Davis, Mark R.; Fernald, Russell D. (1990). "Social control of neuronal soma size". Journal of Neurobiology. 21 (8): 1180–8. doi:10.1002/neu.480210804. PMID 2273399.
  14. ^ Francis, R. C.; Soma, K; Fernald, R. D. (1993). "Social regulation of the brain-pituitary-gonadal axis". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 90 (16): 7794–8. Bibcode:1993PNAS...90.7794F. doi:10.1073/pnas.90.16.7794. PMC 47229. PMID 8356086.
  15. ^ Francis, Richard C.; Jacobson, Ben; Wingfield, John C.; Fernald, Russell D. (1992). "Hypertrophy of gonadotropin releasing hormone-containing neurons after castration in the teleost,Haplochromis burtoni". Journal of Neurobiology. 23 (8): 1084–93. doi:10.1002/neu.480230812. PMID 1460466.
  16. ^ Bond, Chris T.; Francis, Richard C.; Fernald, Russell D.; Adelman, John P. (1991). "Characterization of Complementary DNA Encoding the Precursor for Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone and Its Associated Peptide from a Teleost Fish". Molecular Endocrinology. 5 (7): 931–7. doi:10.1210/mend-5-7-931. PMID 1944299.
  17. ^ Powell, J. F.; Fischer, W. H.; Park, M; Craig, A. G.; Rivier, J. E.; White, S. A.; Francis, R. C.; Fernald, R. D.; Licht, P; Warby, C (1995). "Primary structure of solitary form of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) in cichlid pituitary; three forms of GnRH in brain of cichlid and pumpkinseed fish". Regulatory Peptides. 57 (1): 43–53. doi:10.1016/0167-0115(95)00014-3. PMID 7644702. S2CID 27109447.
  18. ^ White, S. A.; Bond, C. T.; Francis, R. C.; Kasten, T. L.; Fernald, R. D.; Adelman, J. P. (1994). "A second gene for gonadotropin-releasing hormone: CDNA and expression pattern in the brain". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 91 (4): 1423–7. Bibcode:1994PNAS...91.1423W. doi:10.1073/pnas.91.4.1423. PMC 43171. PMID 8108425.
  19. ^ White, S. A.; Kasten, T. L.; Bond, C. T.; Adelman, J. P.; Fernald, R. D. (1995). "Three gonadotropin-releasing hormone genes in one organism suggest novel roles for an ancient peptide". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 92 (18): 8363–7. Bibcode:1995PNAS...92.8363W. doi:10.1073/pnas.92.18.8363. PMC 41157. PMID 7667296.
  20. ^ Kasten, Thomas L.; White, Stephanie A.; Norton, Thomas T.; Bond, Chris T.; Adelman, John P.; Fernald, Russell D. (1996). "Characterization of Two New preproGnRH mRNAs in the Tree Shrew: First Direct Evidence for Mesencephalic GnRH Gene Expression in a Placental Mammal". General and Comparative Endocrinology. 104 (1): 7–19. doi:10.1006/gcen.1996.0135. PMID 8921350. S2CID 25408661.
  21. ^ White, R. B.; Eisen, J. A.; Kasten, T. L.; Fernald, R. D. (1998). "Second gene for gonadotropin-releasing hormone in humans". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 95 (1): 305–9. Bibcode:1998PNAS...95..305W. doi:10.1073/pnas.95.1.305. PMC 18209. PMID 9419371.
  22. ^ White, Richard B.; Fernald, Russell D. (1998). "Genomic Structure and Expression Sites of Three Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone Genes in One Species". General and Comparative Endocrinology. 112 (1): 17–25. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.591.9219. doi:10.1006/gcen.1998.7125. PMID 9748399.
  23. ^ Ma, Yunyong; Juntti, Scott A.; Hu, Caroline K.; Huguenard, John R.; Fernald, Russell D. (2015). "Electrical synapses connect a network of gonadotropin releasing hormone neurons in a cichlid fish". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 112 (12): 3805–10. Bibcode:2015PNAS..112.3805M. doi:10.1073/pnas.1421851112. PMC 4378424. PMID 25775522.
  24. ^ Angier, Natalie (12 November 1991). "In Fish, Social Status Goes Right to the Brain". The New York Times.
  25. ^ Ganguli, Ishani. "Getting on Top, Genetically." Genome Biology. BioMed Central, 19 Oct. 2005. Web. https://genomebiology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/gb-spotlight-20051019-01
  26. ^ University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. "Social Interactions Can Alter Gene Expression In Brain, And Vice Versa." ScienceDaily. ScienceDaily, 7 November 2008. <www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/11/081106153538.htm
  27. ^ Burmeister, Sabrina S; Jarvis, Erich D; Fernald, Russell D (2005). "Rapid Behavioral and Genomic Responses to Social Opportunity". PLOS Biology. 3 (11): e363. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0030363. PMC 1255743. PMID 16216088.
  28. ^ Desjardins, Julie K.; Hofmann, Hans A.; Fernald, Russell D. (2012). "Social Context Influences Aggressive and Courtship Behavior in a Cichlid Fish". PLOS ONE. 7 (7): e32781. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...732781D. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0032781. PMC 3395714. PMID 22807996.
  29. ^ Grosenick, Logan; Clement, Tricia S.; Fernald, Russell D. (2007). "Fish can infer social rank by observation alone". Nature. 445 (7126): 429–32. Bibcode:2007Natur.445..429G. doi:10.1038/nature05511. PMID 17251980. S2CID 4412652.
  30. ^ "The Enemy within: Male Fish Dislike Their Reflections More Than Competitors". Wired.
  31. ^ Juntti, Scott A.; Hilliard, Austin T.; Kent, Kai R.; Kumar, Anusha; Nguyen, Andrew; Jimenez, Mariana A.; Loveland, Jasmine L.; Mourrain, Philippe; Fernald, Russell D. (2016). "A Neural Basis for Control of Cichlid Female Reproductive Behavior by Prostaglandin F 2α". Current Biology. 26 (7): 943–9. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2016.01.067. PMC 4821738. PMID 26996507.
  32. ^ "Stanford scientists identify genetic switch for female sexual behavior". 18 March 2016.
  33. ^ Insel, Thomas R.; Fernald, Russell D. (2004). "How the brain processes social information: searching for the social brain". Annual Review of Neuroscience. 27: 697–722. doi:10.1146/annurev.neuro.27.070203.144148. PMID 15217348.
  34. ^ Fernald, R. D. (2006). "Investigator Profile: An Interview with Russell D. Fernald, Ph.D". Zebrafish. 3 (2): 119–25. doi:10.1089/zeb.2006.3.119. PMID 18248254.
  35. ^ Robinson, G. E.; Fernald, R. D.; Clayton, D. F. (2008). "Genes and Social Behavior". Science. 322 (5903): 896–900. Bibcode:2008Sci...322..896R. doi:10.1126/science.1159277. PMC 3052688. PMID 18988841.
  36. ^ Fernald, Russell D. (2012). "Social Control of the Brain". Annual Review of Neuroscience. 35: 133–51. doi:10.1146/annurev-neuro-062111-150520. PMID 22524786.
  37. ^ Fernald, Russell D. (2014). "Cognitive Skills Needed for Social Hierarchies". Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology. 79: 229–36. doi:10.1101/sqb.2014.79.024752. PMC 5501702. PMID 25746062.
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